Transcript of Faraday's Original Lecture Notes

I						Substances and Affinity 165-
Brief remarks upon the objects of the course - touch principally upon tangible chemistry - and then only on those parts which being constantly before us in one form or another ought to be well understood in the first place if only as being part of general knowledge - Desire to convey clear notions of some of the most important and familiar chemical objects around us.- Intended simplicity of the Lectures
	So in the different varieties of matter that chemical actions and appearances are illustrated  
	Brief remarks on matter first - Its three tangible states.
	Solid matter - Piece of Marble, tin, wood etc  
	Its resistance-		(Exp.)- absolute
	weight			(-)  balance - variable  lead, wax, etc
	retention of form	(-)  - crystal clay, etc
Numerous other properties belong to solid matter - as colour-transparency-brilliancy etc - but also to other bodies as well as solids - The two first belong to all matter  the third constitute it solid matter
Fluids - Water, mercury, oil, possess the two general properties - but   want the third
	Weight -		(Exp.)
	Resistance		(-)  glass syringe of water
				(-)  Cork in mercury - Swimming -
				(-)  Water hammer
no retention of form		(-)  Basin and glass of mercury  
			Form easily changed - fluids thus distinct from solids
I						 -166-
Change of Solid into fluid by heat
				(Exp.) log of spermaceti - reconversion into solid
	by cold 			(-)  Water frozen in tube - Ice - summer -
	winter - Nothing changed but the state - Utility of change 
				(Exp.)  Fusible metal
				(-)   Castings Etc.
	Great variety of fluids - Milk - mercury - blue liquid
	Gases escape attention altogether unless the attention be closely applied - Thus air not known to many because very fluid and very light - but prove its material nature 
				(Exp.)  Bladder of air and stop cock - resists the 
	hand 
				(-) jet impells other bodies - vanes. - Windmill
[Bottle and syringe] resistance of wind in running sailing - good illustration in 
				(Exp.)  the pop gun
			Weight.  Balanced exhaustion globe - air from bladder admitted
				(Exp).  Air in the lecture room weighs 4500 pounds
	or above two tons.
			Distinguised from fluids by their great elasticity
		Great many sorts of gases.
		Coloured		(Exp.) Nitrous acid gas
		Combustible		(-)  Olefiant gas
		Acid -		(-)  Sulphurous and or M.A. Gas
		Incombustible	(-)  Carbonic acid gas
		Alkaline		(-)  Ammonia. These in bottles - but point out
	their general properties and appearance
		This state of matter how affected by heat - produced from both solids and
	fluids		(Exp.)  Iodine - its resumption of solid form
				(-)   Water - flask of boiling water with bladder tied on to
	it & covered by a jar - still the nature is not changed only the form
				[Bladder and Stop cock][later insertion ?]
I						Substances and Affinity -167-
changed only the form
	Resume and give simple conclusions about these three kinds of   matter.
		Now proceed to consider the power which is most important in producing chemical changes.  Attraction first a large & general instance 
				(Exp.)  Magnet & suspended piece of iron
				(-)   Feather & rubbed sealing wax.
These are attractions - with magnet and iron much force is exerted - if substances smaller still attraction would be exerted and the result would be an adhesion or sticking together
				(Exp)  Magnet and filings or turnings - all stick together
			It is by a similar power that other bodies may be made to adhere.
				(Exp)  Pieces of ducht [dutch?] clay - or wax - require to be
	brought close - why - decrease of power by distance 
				(Exp)  Magnet and Iron.  
		Other instances 
				(Exp)  Two bullets
				(-)  Pieces of Caoutchouc
				(-)  Adhesive powder as flower or meal
Explain again the difference between attraction of large masses and of particles - latter must be brought very near together - perhaps in pro- portion to their diminished size - but [it] is that which especially concerns us now and must therefore consider it closely
I						 Substances & Affinity -168-
		Attraction of similar particles - no other effect than adhesion - and the assumption of the solid or fluid state - no change of properties 
				(Exp)  Marble in lumps - fragments and powder
				(-)  Mercury in mass   [illegible] etc.
		The destruction of this attraction merely effects comminution 
				(Exp)  Sulphur roll-powder - and fuzed in basin & cold
	again  [Spermaceti][illegible] [added later?]
		Attraction of dissimilar particles - very different
				(Exp)  Phosphorus & iodine in air - striking
	effects - heat produced - The old substances disappear and new ones
	appear altogether different - it is also found that particular quantities are
	best. - This is Chemical attraction or affinity.
The effects thus produced are not at all undone by breaking the  attraction of similar particles - on the contrary as the action takes place only between the particles it is rather assisted - but we must enter more minutely into the circumstances attending this power.
			Some of the effects are transient as the evolution of light and heat
	electricity
					(Exp)  Iron in oxygen gas
				(-)  Combustion - its great importance
			Change of property is permanent - physical properties - as form
	colours etc.
I						Substance & Affinity  -169-
Solids become gases		(Exp)  Gunpowder
	___ ___  fluids		(-)  Glauber and Nitrate ammonia
Fluids ___  gases 			(-)  Alcohol & Nitric acid
___  ___  solids		(-)  Sols mur lime and Carb potash
gases ____  solids		(-)  M A gas & ammonia -
				(-)  test M A by rod & Ammonia 
Transparent opaque		(-)  Baryta water & Sul acid
Opaque transpt			(-)  Recent Pho Lime & Mur acid 
Colorless col'd			(-)  Ferro prussi pot and sol Iron
				(-)  Syrup & P A
	Other changes more peculiarly chemical
				(Exp)  Sulphur & oxygen -  Sul Acid
				(-)  Phosphorus in air - its acid properties  These become
	active - others become inert as -
				(Exp).  Sul Acid & lump caustic lime - Sul lime
	Unexpected or unanticipated effects
				(Exp)  Potassium in water - alkali
				(-)  Zinc in crucible - oxide
	These last by further action change as strikingly
				(Exp)  Acid on coloured tests - then together
These new properties only remain whilst the bodies are united- destroy the attraction and then such as have appeared disappear
				(Exp)  Ammonia to clear solution phosphate lime in water[?]
	whilst those which have disappeared appear
				(Exp) Sol caustic potash to Mur Ammonia
In this way the wonderful variety of matter which appears in the world is produced from a few elementary principles by virtue
I						Substances & affinity -170-
of chemical attraction - they can never be judged of before-hand but always require an experiment for their determination - Nature of simple and compound bodies
		The last illustrations shew that the strength of the power is different with
	different bodies - This further explained and shown
				(Exp)  Mercury in Nitrate of silver
				(-)  Copper in Nitrate of Mercury
				(-)  Lead in nitrate of copper
				(-)  Zinc in nitrate of lead
	Sometimes the displacement is very violent
				(-)  Nitrate of Copper & tin foil
	Nature of decomposition - analysis
The causes which influence chemical action very important - either as helping or retarding Helping as in making oil of vitriol-alum - aquafortis - preparing metals - medicines etc.  - Retarding as preventing rust of iron - boilers - copper sheathing - decay of metal earthen & other vessels of many sorts
		Aiding causes
	division			(Exp)  Antimony in chlorine - piece of antimony
				(-)  Zinc foil in air - pieces
				(-)  Lead Pyrophorus - pieces
	solution		(-)  Tartaric acid carb soda & water
				(-)  Silica divided & in solution
				(-)  Metallic solution
	pressure		(-)  Sulphur & chlorate potash - detonating pellets
						
	
I						Substances & Affinity -171-
	heat			(Exp)  Fulminating mercury - combustion
				(-)  Burn lead by oxygen blow pipe
fusion divides & heats [illegible]	(-)  Platina & tin foil - alloys
				(-)  Fulminating powder
		Heat sometimes diminishes the agency after having increased it
				(Exp)  Mercury & oxygen - oxide of mercury & tube
				(-)  Silver and oxygen - oxide
				(-)  Fulminating silver - Azotane
				(-)  Carbonate of lime - oxide of manganese
		Affinity influenced by presence of other bodies
				(Exp)  Spongy platinum & jet of hydrogen
				(-)  Ammonia through iron & glass tubes
		Nascent state  its influence
				(Exp)  Oxygen & hydrogen gases do not combine
				(-)  M Acid on zinc evolves hydrogen
				(-)  M A on oxide of zinc - evolves water
				(-)  N A on tin - ammonia formed
The proposed opposition of affinities useful sometimes to retard too powerful an action - at others to assist too indolent a one
	retarding		(Exp)  Bottle of chlorine   _____


	on sul indigo
				(-)  Bottle of bleaching powder
	assisting		(-)  Mur lime & sol Ammonia
				(-)  ________  Carb ammonia
				(-)  Sul soda - Mur Baryta - table to explain 
Effect of sun's light - bleaching - 
Brief notice of definite quantities which combine
II						    Atmosphere & its gases -173-
	Atmospheric air and its gases
Refer to last lecture for proof of the material nature of air
Is a uniform medium spread around us - except in cases of winds[?] rain  snow
	sometimes even stones and metals fall from [sky]  - meteorites - but must consider the great and uniform mass first. Is invisible -- exceedingly mobile and thin - but still cannot get out of the way so fast but that it may be felt.
				(Exp)  Fan - open hand wafted
		When itself moving it sometimes like a stream of water carries all before it
			Ships - Kite - Kite carriage - Franklins Kite -
A wind blowing at 20 or 25 miles per hour exerts 2 to 3 lbs on square foot - very brisk - at 80 miles per hour  31 1/2 lbs - a hurricane  -  force on a large tree in first instance is between 4 and five tons
		Weight of Air
				(Exp)  as in last lecture - is not so small as might be
	imagined - the room full weighs 4500 lb. or above two tons
	(Table)  Weight of a gallon of air
It is as to the property of weight just like other liquids - it sinks below   those things which are lighter and lies upon those which are heavier - it lies upon the earth and waters because lighter - but sinks below the clouds  because often heavier
				(Exp)  Jar with stones  crystals clear water & floating bulb.
			We sink to the bottom of it because we are heavier
II						  Atmosphere & its gases -174-
		and this is intended in nature for it is to us as water is to fishes we cannot
	do without it - if it fails us we die  but lighter things will rise in it
				(Exp)  Bulb in water  -  Balloon in air
				(-)  Smoke in air
				(-)  Bottle of alcoholic sol cochineal at bottom of large
	jar water slightly ammoniacal
			So there is an ocean of this fluid - air - all round our globe
	descending into the deepest caverns and covering the highest mountains
				Elasticity - This ocean of air differs from the ocean of water in its
	great elasticity
				(Exp)  Spiral spring
				(-)  Glass flask of air with small tight caoutchouc bag on
	the mouth
				(-)  Syringe - piston half way up
		here observe effects of pressure - compare it with the spring
				(Exp)  Spring with weight on and off
				(-)  Syringe with air weight on and off
				Air pump shows these properties well - explain 
				
		Weight 			(Exp)  Hand glass - Bladder glass - Fixed jar
			[Tube with water & hand][added later ?]
		Elasticity	(Exp)  Bladder of air under receiver
				(-)  Weights upon bladder
				(-)  Fountain by expansion
		Consequent rarefaction of air as we ascend in atmosphere 
II						Atmosphere & its Gases   -175-
				(Exp)  jar of down - expansion of air in balloons so that
	there is no definite top to the atmosphere
				(-)  Pop Gun
			Barometer 
			Illustrate principle of weighing in 
		barometer by long syphon with mercury in 
		bend and other fluids poured into the legs
				(Exp)  Fluids poured in - compare this to simple barometer
				(Exp)  Syphon barometer tube
		Whole weight of the atmosphere
		Equal to about a universal ocean of water 30 feet deep.
		Expansion of air by heat - contraction by cold
				(Exp)  Air Thermometer - bladder
				(-)  Montgolfiers balloon
				(-)  Ascent of smoke - of hot air
			Important chemical effects which take place in the atmosphere
			Combustion - breathing - vegetation - all limited and cease before
	the air is gone.
		Combustion	(Exp)  Phosphorus in air jar over water - soon ceases and
	the gas which is left then puts out other phosphorus
				(Exp)
		The phosphorus has by chemical affinity taken part of the air but can take
	no more - explain - hence at least two bodies differing from each other.
		
II						 Atmosphere and its Gases -176-
		Again		(Exp)  Amalgam of lead and mercury shaken in bottle
				(-)  Mercury boiled in Air   Lavoisiers expt.
				(-)  Oxide of mercury heated and decomposed - here the
	two parts of the air are obtained separate - examine them by a lighted taper
				(Exp)  Striking differences - these two gases are Oxygen
	and Nitrogen or Azote
		Oxygen - prepared - oxide of mercury
				(Exp)  Oxide of manganese in iron retort
				(-)  Red lead & sulphuric acid collected - tried
				(Exp)  by taper - also seems to indicate its presence
				(-)  Chlorate in wide tube & lamp
			The gas is like air in appearance - has no colour - is transparent - a
	little heavier than air - Tabb[?] weight of gallon of air oxygen and nitrogen
						(Table)
		is not dissolved by water - is not acid or alkaline
				(Exp)  Supports combustion wonderfully
				(-)  Taper in jar of gas - Phosphorus etc.
				(-)  Iron in it
powerful combustion - is a case of mere combination like those described  in the last lecture - it is in the same way that combustion takes place in  air - but there nitrogen present and embarrasses the action  
		examine nitrogen
			Nitrogen - prepared
				(Exp)  is left after phosphorus has taken oxygen
				(-)  Bottles & jars of it
II				[Elect spark in air][added later?]		Atmosphere & its gases -177-
	Is like oxygen in appearance - does not affect colours
				(Exp)  Nitrogen & test papers - rather lighter than air
				(Table) ________ will not support combustion
				(Exp)   ________ has no apparent active properties
Now easily distinguish this gas from oxygen - and easily understand that it will diminish the energy of the latter if mixed with it - just like water mixed with  Spirit			(Exp)  Alcohol burning pour water in
		Proportions in air 1 to 4 - mix these
				(Exp)  Oxygen & nitrogen in jars
				(-)  Mix proportions & try the mixture - this is air again
Air therefore has the mixed properties of these two gases. - the oxygen the part of it which supports combustion - and the part directly necessary to life in  breathing - breathe an air without oxygen or cease breathing and we die
	Water in Air - Rain
				(Exp)  Cold vessel of water - glass of spring water
				(-)  Drying of clothes - Clouds - rain - snow - all the
	rivers fed from water in the air
	Carbonic acid in air - All smoke from fires and candles passes into air - here
	carbonic acid shows its presence
				(Exp)  Sub acetate of lead & glasses - consider it hereafter
II						 -178-
As to deterioration of air - Present table
air in lecture room weighs 4500 lb & equals 372560 gallons.  At about 1 gallon per minute it would last one  person
6209 hours or - 258 3/4 days or 8.6 months  a person when breathing quietly as when asleep breathes about 7 times in a minute
III						Water and its gases -179-
Water as essential to mankind as air - is essential to all animals and vegetables - The enormous quantity of it in the ocean  lakes  rivers and the atmosphere very striking to the young mind - but its importance more evident upon considering its presence and quantity in the things necessary to our existence - It forms the greatest part of all natural and artificial fluids - consequently of fluid aliment  Thus in water alone - in milk  soup - fermented liquors - fluid  food[?] - When in succulent vegetable 19/20 - a potato  an apple
	meat    beef
Then as to necessity in the system itself the veins and vessels of an animal full of it. - Of an ox 1/2 to 3/4 are water
In plants and flowers  - is as necessary to vegetation - shoot out - vessel fill & are distended - plant grows - a bulbous root
				(Exp)  Water - the type of fluids - when pure always alike -
	distilled water
				(Exp)  Retort and globe receiver  difference of sea water,
	river water, rain water  well water -   Tincture Soup [added later]
			So colourless - query deep clear lakes - clear as air 
				(Exp)  jar of clear water  tasteless - weight
				(Table)  of a gallon - other fluids compared by it & with it
			Effects of temperature
			By cooling it becomes solid - is then called
III						Water & its elements -180-
		ice  
				(Exp)  a specimen - clear - hard - burning
		glasses of it - when warmed then becomes water
				(Exp)  Ice thawed
			Much warmth wanted to effect this - more than to warm as much
	water only - explain simply   the fact only - and not as to quantity of heat.
				(Exp)  hot water poured on to fine ice
				(-)  --------- as much ice water  
		observe evident difference
			Ice is light and swims
				(Exp)  ------ expansion during formation very
	great -
	lbs or more exerted - The freezing point constant - know it
	every winter - is what is marked 32´ on thermometer - thaws above that -
	freezes below that point
			By heat - water becomes steam
				(Exp)  Flask and lamp - boiling explained - steam
	condensed into water again when cold
				(Exp)  steam into globe   Steam whilst hot a clear dry fluid
				(Exp)  sent through a hot and dry glass tube when it
	condenses it gives out much heat
				(Exp)  Globe receiving steam soon heated and by little water
	- heating pipes or vessels
				(Exp)  Steam sent through a pipe into a vessel
		The temperature of these changes 212´ - scalding hot   Steam very bulky
				(Exp)  Flask and bladder from last lecture
III						Water and its elements -181-
		One gallon of water makes 1325 [added later] gallons of steam
				(Table)  Weight of a gallon of steam [52.83 gr][added later]
	when condensed becomes water again of former volume hence explain
	source of power in the steam engine
				(Exp)  Candle cracker - outwards force
				(-)  Square bottle with steam  then plunged in water
	power of air when steam condensed
				(Exp)  Wollastons - apparatus
			Water an old element - one of the four - does indeed combine as
	one sometimes
				(Exp)  Water on to quick lime - heat fire phosphorus
				(-)  Crystal of sul lime heated
				(-)  Hydrate of copper heated  But it is really a compound
	body and we can decompose and recompose it at pleasure
			Decomposed
				(Exp)  Potassium in air burnt
				(-)  _________ on water - metal takes
	oxygen in both cases and produces a new body the same in both cases -
	turmeric paper - then
				(Exp)  Potassium in tube into water - same body formed as
	before - and a gas set free - this the other element
			Same effects are produced by hot iron and then much more gas may
	be collected
				(Exp)  Steam over ignited iron  try this gas and compare it
	with oxygen and nitrogen - find it different & combustible
III						Water and its elements -182-
				(Exp)  The hydrogen gas burnt - quite different  this gas
	called hydrogen - and water is a compound of it with oxygen - Proceed
	now to the properties of this gas.
			Hydrogen procured - zinc & dilute acid
				(Exp) - Gas prepared - collected & operations   Is
	transparent - colourless - not absorbed by water - not acid or alkaline - is
	inflammable
				(Exp)  Burn in jar - pale flame but great heat
				(-)  Jet of hydrogen and platinum wire  - [tones?]
				(-)  ---------  singing tubes
		if mixed with air then explodes
				(Exp)  Hydrogen & air exploded - if oxygen be used can
	imagine the results from the former lecture
				(Exp)  hydrogen and oxygen exploded
			This gas is very light
				(Exp)  Two jars lightness of it
				(-)  Jars of  pour it upwards
				(-)  Balloon  [Soap bubbler][added later?]
		is the lightest body known
				(Table)  Weight of a gallon   
		Instantaneous light machine by platinum
				(Exp)  
			Oxygen - already described & known - compare weights & volumes
	of these two aqueous elements
				(Table)
			When hydrogen is burnt then water is formed - easily understand
	that from what has been said
III						Water and its elements -183-
				(Exp)  Jet of hydrogen and bell glass - [dimness?]
		(-)  _______________ Hopes apparatus same result when oxygen is employed in a pure state - but then can measure the quantities used - find that two vessels of hydrogen for one of
	oxygen are required.
				(Exp)  Gases mixed & fired in Cavendish app. absorption -
	results
				(Table) Proportions in water by vol and weight - and thus
	the water that we decomposed is reproduced.
			How different from its elements - fine instance of change of form
	& qualities by chemical affinity.
			Instance of combustion afforded by oxygen and hydrogen perfect -
	so great a heat
				(Exp)  Jet and wire
		remember that the heat is the result of intense chemical attraction - and
	that it here constitutes combustion - Common combustion - how far
	dependent upon the hydrogen present in combustible & the oxygen in the
	air
				(Exp)  Candle burning - still water formed
				(-)  Spirit lamp and globe - great heat if oxygen used
				(Exp)  Oxyalcohol jet & lead silver or iron quantity of water
	formed in these cases often very great from an Argand lamp a pint in
	12 hours
	______ a Parish lamp
III						Water & its Elements -184-
		Combustion of coal in fires referred to
		Voltas machine light][added later?]
IV						Aqua-fortis or Nitric acid -185-
			The substance known by this name - is very useful and in careless
	hands very dangerous - a Specimen - on iron or zinc
			Is composed of nitrogen and oxygen in combination and with little
	water - Is one of those bodies called acids - shall explain their general
	properties presently - Aqua fortis prepared
				(Exp)  Distil nitre and oil of vitriol
				(-)  Put powdered nitre & oil of vitriol into a glass -
	explain what happens as to displacement - The product examined - is
	aqua-fortis
			General acid properties exhibited by it
				(Exp)  Dilute N. A. to litmus paper - to blue liquor - is also
	sour - and is soluble in water
				(Exp)  Dilute it
		But it has many particular properties - many dependant on the oxygen
	present in it - for it is composed of 
				(Table) composition - Soon[?] see how the oxygen in it acts
				(Exp)  Fumes - if hot more fumes - boils off
				(-)  Stains & corrodes skin - Parchment
				(-)  Dissolves metals - Copper leaf - Tin foil
				(-)  Acts on burning bodies - Alcohol
				(-)  _____________________  - oil turpentine
				(-)  Little in basin - phosphorus inflamed in it
		The acid always contains water
				(Table)  of strongest and others
		May observe the results of its presence in dry & hot
IV						Aqua-fortis - Hartshorn -186-
		nitre		(Exp)  Charcoal & Nitre in hot crucible
				(-)  Gunpowder
			May be decomposed by heating its vapour in metal tubes - nitrogen
	& other of its compounds. -
				(Table)  again - Observe that has the same elements as the
	air - is a wonderful instance of the effects of chemical affinity
			Ammonia or Hartshorn
			Is a very different body from the former - the former of Nitrogen
	and oxygen - this of nitrogen and hydrogen - Formed from burnt
	horn - hence its name
				(Exp)  Isinglass or horn in retort - globe & paper
				(-)  Products of this operation
		Obtained from Mur Ammonia & lime
				(-)  liquid ammonia distilled - specimen - obtained still
	more pure - gaseous
				(Exp)  Ammoniacal gas obtained over mercury
				(-)  Bottles of it ready
		Properties
			This gas very different from those already described.
				(Exp)  Smell
				(-)  Turmeric paper - blue liquor
				(-)  Absorbed by water - a jar over water - the solution
	has the same properties as the gas - and as the solutions obtained by other
	processes.
			Weight (Table)  of one gallon
			This substance is an alkali - Observe their general
IV						Hartshorn- -187-
		properties - smell not essential - but they are soluble in water - Change
	vegetable colours particularly - cause oils to mix with water
				(Exp)  Oil water then alkali and they neutralize the power
	of acids and lose their own - explain
				(Exp)  Acids & Alkalis on coloured liquors & papers
				(-)  Coloured liquors put together
				(-)  A neutral solution to coloured liquor salts of various
	kinds the results - but other kinds of salts also - specimens of Mur
	Ammonia - Nitre etc.
				Change of colour tests for acids and alkalies
			Ammonia is distinguished from the other alkalis by smell - and by
	volatility
				(Exp)  Reddened turmeric heated
			Now refer to common Hartshorn again - to burnt feathers - burn a
	feather and see the ammonia
				(Exp)
			The gas burns with oxygen
				(Exp)
			Decomposed in a hot tube
				(Exp)
			Table of the results and of composition
			Muriatic acid or Spirit of Salt
			Another well known acid and one in common use - is called Spirit
	of salt because obtained from salt
IV						Spirit of Salt -188-
		and because it is very volatile or vapoury
	(Exp)  Oil of Vitriol on salt - fumes - reddens litmus   paper - If the experiment be made as with nitre and oil of vitriol find little  will condense but much gas produced - but if add water find all will   condense - try both methods.
				(Exp)  M A gas prepared over mercury
				(-)  Sol Mur Acid prepared   have now obtained the
	substance in two states - just like ammonia in that respect
				(Exp)  Bottles of M A gas and of solution
				(Table)  Weight of a gallon of gas
				(Exp)   Gas not support combustion - extinguishes light in a
	jar - fumes in air
				(Exp)  is acid to litmus or cabbage liquor
				(-)  Sol in water - little tube and jar of gas - this solution
	is just like the former one
			This acid combines with alkalies and neutralizes them
				(Exp)  Red & Green solutions etc.
		Ammonia being volatile have the opportunity of observing it combine with
	M A gas in gaseous state
				(Exp)  Glasses emitting amm & mur acid gas put together
				(-)  ----------- confined by large bell
	glass
				(-)  Test ammonia by M A & rod of glass.  Sal
	ammoniac - what have now compounded - decomposed it - and obtained
	both its elements
IV						Spirit of Salt - Chlorine -189-
			new element - which has been called chlorine  
			We can obtain it at the same time that we can decompose M.A. and
	so shew its composition - Use black oxide of manganese and solution of
	M. A.
				(Exp)  Chlorine prepared - explain or use red lead and Mur
	Acid
				(Exp)  Bottles of Chlorine
			This gas distinct from all the others we have seen - is coloured - its
	name - terrible odour and effect on lungs - dangerous
				(Exp)  Almost extinguishes taper light - but burns metals
	violently
				(Exp)  Copper leaf - antimony - in this respect it is like
	oxygen i.e. is a supporter of combustion - as to colours it bleaches them
	generally
				(Exp)  Bleach indigo - cabbage liquor - litmus very useful
	for this reason - bleach things
				(Exp)  Bleach cottons or coloured paper  it likewise destroys
	all bad odour  - disinfecting powders
				(Exp)  Their effects on solutions  it is easily prepared in
	small quantity for purifying bad airs
				(Exp)  Red lead and M A - but requires great care
					(Table)  Weight   
		is an elementary substance
			This gas causes combustible things to burn as metals - let us see
	what will happen if we burn
IV						Muriatic acid -190-
		hydrogen in it
				(Exp)  Detonate mixture in Cavendish - Muriatic acid gas is
	produced - remark the fumes etc.
				(Exp)  fuming[?] of contents - then observe the solubility
	and change of colours
				(Exp)  blue liquor let in - This is muriatic acid
				(Table)  of composition of the gas
V						Sulphur Phosphorus Carbon and their acids -191-
We shall today consider the nature of some bodies which are combustible - and exist usually in the solid state -  Know what a combustible body is - and what a supporter of combustion is - instance hydrogen and oxygen - and we know also how they combine producing light & heat and forming a new substance - Have already seen the properties of the great supporter of combustion - oxygen - in the air - We will now look at the bodies which we ordinarily use as combustibles
Carbon is the great combustible - Coal-tallow - wood - wax etc. are all compounds - not think of them therefore but look at the elements to which they owe their properties - these are carbon and hydrogen - Then sulphur also a very useful and a common substance - and phosphorus because it resembles the former bodies in its combustible nature - is almost the only additional element of this class - and will exhibit combustion and the products of combustion in perfection
 Sulphur - Brimstone    (Specimens)
a well known body - yellow - hard - electric
				(Exp)  Sulphur rubbed - attracts feather or down not soluble
	in water - heavier than water - S. G. 1.99 - It does not change in the air -
	when heated it melts - at first is fluid - then thicker
				(Exp)  Sulphur melted in a flask
				(-)  Thickened sulphur
				(-)  Sublimed sulphur
		Sulphur burns in air when heated - pale blue
V						Sulphur - Suls and Oil Vitriol -192-
		flame - hot flame - smell of products
				(Exp)  Flower sulphur over argand lamp  burns much more
	brilliantly in oxygen gas
				(Exp)  Sulphur in oxygen - (resume the results)  
			The result is an acid - Sulphurous acid and it is gaseous when pure
				(Exp)  Bottles of Sulphurous acid gas
				(-)  Reddens litmus or cabbage liquor - bleaches
				(-)  Extinguishes a light  even mixed with air
				(-)  ________________
	when diluted  
		has a suffocating odour - is heavy
				(Table)  Weight of a gallon
		[explain] soluble in water - its solution
			Explain its composition - bulk of oxygen not increased or
	diminished
				(Table)  this the history of the substance
			[Rose bleach][added later?]
			There is another acid of sulphur and oxygen containing more
	oxygen than the last - called sulphuric acid - is the well known body oil of
	vitriol - & is prepared in enormous quantities
			It is always in solution
				(Exp)  Specimens of Sul Acid
		the solution is heavy - when as strong as possible nearly twice as heavy as
	water - is very acid
				(Exp)  Little oil vitriol to much cabbage liquor or water &
	litmus    
		it has no smell - corrodes & burns skin or other bodies
				(Exp)  S A to paper - Black acid - an invisible ink
				(-)  Invisible writing rendered visible
V						Oil vitriol - Sul Hydrogen - Phosphorus -193-
		should be therefore careful of it
			If the strong acid be heated it at last boils and fumes 
				(Exp)  Heated Sulphuric acid - sulphurous acid does not do
	this
			When the strong acid is diluted much heat is evolved
				(Exp)  Dilute acid & fire phosphorus -
		Composition (Table)
			If this acid be combined with alkalis as ammonia all its powers lost
				(Exp)  Little S A in bottle of Amm - salt is formed
			Sulphuretted Hydrogen
			Sources of sulphur - Pyrites - native sulphur-crystallizes - Sicily -
	immense quantities in America -
			Phosphorus
		Is solid like sulphur
			(Specimens)
		but soft and is cut with a knife like wax - its S.G. 1.77 - Transparent - and
	either clear yellow, brown 
V						Phosphorus - Phosphoric acid -194-
		or black
			It shines in the dark and smoke of a luminous kind is seen to rise
	from it - it is not soluble in water but is soluble in oil and ether
				(Exp)  Solutions of phosphorus
		it is a dangerous body to handle - because it inflames very readily - burns
	very powerfully - melts as it burns so as to adhere to every thing that it
	touches - and the substance which it forms is very injurious
				(Exp)  Phosphorus on brown paper
				(-)  ----- in capsule - not fire paper readily
	dense fumes are produced these are phosphoric acid
				(Exp)  Phosphorus in dry basin under bell glass.  no
	combustion more intense than that of phosphorus in full ignition in oxygen
				(Exp)  Phosphorus in oxygen - sun in bottle  The results
	are phosphoric acid
				(Exp)  The white flakes dissolved in water
				(-)  Change of colour by them - are very sour - if
	evaporated yield solid phosphoric acid - its composition
				(Table)
		This acid exists in bones combined with lime
				(Exp)  Specimens of bone ash - of glass of phosphorus
				(-)  Retort and furnace arranged - crude phosphorus -
	thus the insipid inert white ash left when bones are burnt is made to yield
	this extraordinary body phosphorus
			When phosphorus is imperfectly burnt the substance left is more
	readily combustible than pure
V						Phosphorus - Phosphuretted hydrogen -195-
		phosphorus - perhaps an oxide formed - certainly an acid - but both these
	mixed with phosphorus
				(Exp)  Phosphorus bottle and matches  another method of
	obtaining light is by friction
				(Exp)  Piece of phosphorus matches & a cork
			The salt formed by combining phosphoric acid and ammonia is
	neutral - and has been recommended to prevent combustion
				(Exp)  Muslin in phosphate ammonia
			Phosphorus combines with hydrogen as well as oxygen and forms a
	compound possessing very extraordinary properties - both the elements are
	combustible and so is the compound
				(Exp)  Phos hydrogen prepared - inflames spontaneously in
	the air
				(Exp)  Rings of smoke - are Phos acid & water
				(-)  Bubbles in oxygen gas
				(-)  Bottles of gas - may be thus preserved a few hours
				(Table)  of weight of gas & composition
			Charcoal - Carbon
			A well known instance in common wood charcoal - burn wood &
	then when done flaming quench it in water
				(Exp)  Burn writing paper   
		This is charcoal or carbon - explain the carbon from
V						Charcoal - Carbonic acid -196-
		paper, or linen or wax - the black insoluble substance in coke etc. all
	carbon - specimens of charcoal
				(Exp)  Sul acid to paper - this too is carbon
			Charcoal - black colour - no smell - insoluble in water - does not
	melt or boil like sulphur or phosphorus - but burns away in the air or in
	oxygen - It is almost imperishible - practice of charring poles of wood - It
	destroys colours and odours
				(Exp)  Wine & charcoal
		changes[?] putrid substances
			It absorbs much water and air but suffers no other change.
		Burns			(Exp)  Charcoal in oxygen - dissolves and a gas remains
	equal in bulk to the oxygen - this is Carbonic acid gas
				(Table)  of its weight & composition
			If spirit of salt be poured on to marble effervescence and a gas
	exactly the same as that obtained by the combustion - thus easily collected
	pure
				(Exp)  Carb and gas procured
				(-)  Bottles & jars of it
		The gas is colourless and transparent - pungent odour when strong i.e. pure
	- extinguishes flame
				(Exp)  Extinguish taper - and it also destroys life if the
	attempt be made to respire it   It is as to weight the reverse of hydrogen
	being heavy	(Exp)  Gas remains in upright jar - taper - then pour it into
	another jar with a burning taper
V						Carbonic acid - choke damp -197-
			Now this gas is formed in many natural operations - coal mines -
	pits - wells etc. - 
		Also by fermentation of wine and beer - and its great weight causes it to
	collect occasionally in low situations as pits - it is then dangerous and the
	more so as it cannot be seen - brewers vat
				(Exp)  one of former jars and the taper again  
			Grotto del'Cane
			The presence of this gas is easily ascertained by a taper or still more
	delicately by lime water
				(Exp)  lime water test
		Can show its formation during the ordinary combustion of a candle by
	lime water
				(Exp)  Bell glass candle & lime water  
		Now easily understand why fumes of charcoal are deadly - and why the
	side of a brick kiln is dangerous
			Carbonic acid dissolves in water
				(Exp)  Nooths apparatus - and by force much may in this
	way be condensed
				(Exp)  Soda water  
		Beer champagne etc. contain it (Cyder)
				(Exp)  Glass of cyder or beer under air pump.  
		the gas evolved is a part of what was formed during fermentation
			Carbonic oxide
			A few bottles and jars of it  
		Colourless - transparent - not soluble - very little
V						Carbonic oxide - Carburetted hydrogen -198-
		smell		(Exp)  burn from jet - no water formed but carbonic acid
				(Table)  of weight
			Carburetted hydrogen
			Several compounds of carbon and hydrogen exist.  
		the most important of them are gaseous - shall shortly consider the one
	called olefiant gas
				(Exp)  Oleft gas made
				(-)  Bottles and jars of it
		is colorless - transparent - not soluble in water  
		I wish to show it to you for the purpose of pointing out its combustible
	nature and the bright light it produces when burnt
				(Exp)  Oleft gas burnt
		This bright light is occasioned by the presence of the carbon which burns
	at the same time with the hydrogen - Observe how much it resembles the
	flame of wax or tallow
				(Exp)  Candle - and here similar substances are burning
	Can show the carbon in this gas by chlorine
				(Exp)  Oleft gas & chlorine fired - blue liquor or litmus
	paper
			Now when such bodies as coal wax oil or resin are distilled in
	close vessels they produce mixtures of gases which when cooled &
	washed consist principally of carburetted hydrogen and this gas being
	sent through pipes will burn where
V						Carburetted hydrogen -199-
		it issues into the air if a light be applied
				(Exp)  Bladder or vessel of gas and jet  
		This illustrates the nature of gas lights - and now will have no difficulty in
	understanding the nature of the flame about a coal fire or fire of wood
	The flame is merely the combustion of the gas produced within the wood
	or coal by the action of the heat of the lower part of the fire - Easily make
	an experiment with brown paper to show this
				(Exp)  Roll of brown paper lighted at one end either burn it
	by flame at one end - or by inclining it can carry gas up the middle &
	cause jet of flame at the other end.
			Charcoal & diamond the same
VI						Metals - Oxides - Earths - fixed alkalies & salts -200-
Metals distinguished at first sight from all other substances by their brilliant lustre - then by their apparently perfect opacity and a great many of them by being very heavy
A great number of them  (Table)
		Lustre		(Exp)  Clean silver - mercury - lead - gold - stone - steel
		Opacity	(-)  Plate of tin - foil - gold leaf
		Malleability	(-)  Gold & silver leaf - 1/282.000 of an inch - foil - 
			wire exhibits a similar property - metals far beyond any other
	substance - finer than a hair
				(Exp)  Fine wire - Wollastons
		Brittle		(-)  Antimony - bismuth - a mortar or hammer - zinc[?]
	very peculiar. Lead soft [added later]
		Tenacity	(Exp)  Iron and steel wire with weight 
				(Table)  Hammersmith bridge - a bar of iron inch square
	supports -
		Conducting Power  The metals feel very hot or very cold to the hand if
	compared with other bodies - conduct heat fast compared with wood   			(Exp)  Metal & wooden cylinders & paper - used in houses
	sometimes for this purpose - Conduct electricity also
Reflect heat  Weight		(Exp)  Common metals heavy iron - lead - gold etc.

[added later?]
				compare with mercury and marble
				(Exp)  Basin of mercury - balls of iron & marble - a piece
	of platina - this the heaviest body known - There are however
	some rare metals which are very light - even lighter than
	water - shall show one presently
		Heat  All solid but one - Mercury - but by heat  They melt and then
	crystallize on cooling
				(Exp)  Crystals of lead zinc Antimony - [illegible]  Metal
			Metals are also combustible but they differ exceedingly in this
	respect - some being with difficulty prevented from burning in the air -
	others being burnt with great difficulty
VI						   Metals - Oxides -201-
				(Exp)  Potassium on foil
				(-)  ------ water - observe how light it is -
	burns almost like phosphorus - tarnishes instantly -
				(Exp)  Zinc burnt in crucible - in candle
		Iron filings in flame of lamp [added later?]
				(-)  Lead & silver by oxygen on charcoal
		When metals tarnish by heat and air - there is the same kind of action and
	the same combination but not with the evolution of light and heat
				(Exp)  Tin plate heated - rust of iron - there is no
	other difference and if the tarnish be effected very quickly on every part
	of the mass - it bursts into combustion
				(Exp)  Clean plate of lead & lead pyrophorus   
						jar of oxygen
	[iron filings]
	[zinc foil]
The compounds of the metals with oxygen constitute a class of bodies distinguished by the general term oxides - but again subdivided into classes according to their properties - Alkalies - earths - oxides - and acids - Take ordinary oxides first
				(Exp)  Burn iron in oxygen
				(-)  Scales of Iron - red rust of iron
				(-)  Plate of copper in the fire - These oxides are of very
	varied colours
				(Exp)  Oxides of lead - tin - copper - iron - but they are
	very constant in their composition
				(Table)  of some oxides
		They are generally solid opaque earthy looking bodies - frequently heavy -
	and many of them occur naturally being then often crystallized
				(Exp)  Oxides of iron copper tin
			If they are put into water most of them remain 
VI						Metallic oxides - Alkalis -202-
		unaltered - but some dissolve and are found to have acid properties - the
	rest remaining neutral
				(Exp)  Sol of Arsenious acid & litmus paper - called metallic     acids
			The oxides which are not acid combine with acids to form salts -
	many of them of great importance
				(Exp)  Oxide of zinc in dilute sulphuric acid
				(-)  White vitriol - Blue vitriol - green vitriol - these are [Illegible phrase] called metallic salts and not only the oxide but the metal may be obtained[added later?] from them by proper means
				(Exp)  Sol of copper precipitated by alkali
				(-)  ---------------metallic iron
			The metallic acids combine with alkalis and neutralize them - a
	specimen
				(Exp)  Chromate  Tungstate - When the acids are united to
	metallic oxides they generally form insoluble salts often of beautiful
	colours
				(Exp)  Chromates of silver mercury lead etc. precipitated  
		A great many pigments are formed from metallic oxides in one state or
	another
			If we now examine the metals which are most combustible - we
	shall find the oxides of two or three to possess very extraordinary
	properties - The metal potassium for instance is soluble
				(Exp)  Solution before obtained - alkaline to turmeric paper
	like ammonia - also corrodes the skin & feels soapy - and it neutralizes
	the ordinary acids
				(Exp)  Neutralize acid solution by potash
VI						Alkalies - -203-
		if evaporated it leaves a solid white substance
				(Exp)  Pure hydrate of potassium - which has no smell &
	will not fly away like ammonia  This is the alkali potash - why called
	fixed It exists in an impure state in pearl ash - and is obtained originally
	from wood ashes
				(Exp)  Ashes of charcoal and turmeric paper
				(-)  Burn a piece of wood & apply ash to turmeric paper
	Now all potash is a compound of a metal potassium & oxygen and by
	proper but laborious experiments may be separated into these two
	substances
				(Table)  Composition of the hydrate
When the alkali is combined with acids it forms salts - thus with  nitric acid nitre is produced
				(Exp)  Specimens of nitre   
		a numerous set of these saline compounds are obtained
When sea weeds are burned they also produce an alkali different  from potassia and generally called soda - It has very similar properties to the former - may be decomposed and a metal (sodium) extracted from it - but I may not stop to say more about it
There are several substances which because they form the mass of  this our earth have been called earths   The earth of flint or sand - silica the earth of clay - alumina  the earth of marble
VI						Earths - -204-
or chalk - lime - and the earth Magnesia etc. there are others also which are very rare - These have been distinguished into two kinds the one set possessing alkaline properties the other not
				(Exp)  Samples of the earths - thus observe marble and flint
	both inactive in the ordinary state - then calcine them  now find that lime
	will dissolve
				(Exp)  Calcined lime & flint
				(-)  Solutions of lime - flint & water - turmeric paper  
it reddens colours like an alkali and is called an alkaline earth - Remember  also that quick lime will burn cloathes & this due to its alkaline powers -  silica or alumina will not produce any of these effects
			The alkaline earths also combine with acids readily to form neutral
	salts
		[Acid to Sand and lime?] [added later?]
				(Exp)  Sul lime - Sul Magnesium - Nit Baryta  
		the common earths form salts with more difficulty & are always acid
All these earths are compounds of metals with oxygen but it is extremely difficult to overcome the chemical attraction and separate the metals - only a few people have seen these metals - but it was found that when they combined with oxygen they reformed the earths from which they were obtained.
Now you have seen the distinction betwen the alkaline earths and the other earths - you may easily know them from alkalis because the salts of the latter are not precipitated by carbonates 
VI						Metals Etc -205-
				(Exp)  Test alcaline & earthy salts by carbonate of potash -
	
So the fixed alkalis - the earths - and the abundant class of ordinary oxides all result from the union of oxygen with different metals - If time permitted I could now enter into many interesting relations of the way in which they are found in the earth.  the manner in which the metals are separated - and the uses to which they & their compounds are applied
			Reduction of ores
			Glass
			Pottery Porcelain - Bricks
but now take leave hoping you will remember a good deal of what I have told you and shown you respecting the atmosphere water - combustible bodies the acids and metals those very important elements of chemical knowledge