Distinctions in Levels of Causation

Proximate Ultimate

Mechanistic Evolutionary

Internal Cause External Cause

Immediate Historical ng with hormones, for example, makes them sing. This would be a proximate explanation. Another hypothesis, an ultimate explanation, is that sparrows sing to attract mates. These ideas may not be mutually exclusive, but each experimenter is looking at the question in a fundamentally different way. Teachers must help students see these distinctions in order to understand science.

Materials:

Dry Erase Boards and Markers, Student Worksheet, References as needed (see Resources section)

Teacher Preparation and Directions

This activity is designed to be an introduction to any animal behavior laboratory. It will be very helpful to look at a textbook of animal behavior (see Resources section) prior to beginning this exercise. The reference section lists several books from which to take animal behavior examples, but one may just as easily look at the animals around them to find examples. Newspapers and popular magazines offer lots of examples, as well. The examples in the worksheet can easily be changed and teachers should feel free to allow students to suggest behaviors for the exercise. It should be stressed that students are to design experiments that test an hypothesis. There is no reason to question the "correctness" of the idea, just that the experiment will test what it attempts to test. The proximate-ultimate questions should fit the criteria in the table above. I think this is an excellent activity to do in cooperative groups. Each group should share the results of their work with the class. It will work, however, as an individual assignment.

Resources

Alcock, John. Animal Behavior. Sinauer Associates, Publisher, Sunderland, MA: 1993.

Alcock, John and Sherman, P. "The Utility of the Proximate-Ultimate Dichotomy in Ethology", Ethology v96, n 1. January 1, 1994.

Drickamer, Lee C and Vessey, Stephen H. Animal Behavior. Wm. C. Brown, publishers. Dubuque, IA: 1992.

Drewsbury, D.A. "On the Utility of the Proximate-Ultimate Distinction in the study of Animal Behavior", Ethology v 96, n 1. January 1, 1994

Lorenz, Konrad. King Solomon’s Ring. Harper and Row, New York: 1952.

Mayr, Ernst. "Cause and Effect in Biology", Science 134: 1501-1506. Nov. 10, 1961.

Morris, Desmond. Cat Watching. Crown Trade Paperbacks. New York: 1993.

Morris, Desmond. Dog Watching. Crown Trade Paperbacks. New York: 1986.

About the Author

Mike McNabb teaches biology at Ballard High School in Louisville, KY. He can be contacted at Ballard High School, 6000 Brownsboro Rd., Louisville, KY 40222 or by e-mail at mikemc4161@aol.com.

The "Hows and Whys" of Animal Behavior

Suggested Answers

The following information includes some suggestions for possible answers to the proximate–ultimate questions on the student sheet. These answers are not the only possible ones or even especially good ones. They do, however, provide some direction for the teacher. The idea is to use the student responses as a starting point for understanding proximate–ultimate questions and to begin to develop principles of good experimental design.

Question 1: • Cats purr because they’re contented. —Proximate

• Cats that purr receive more attention from mother and so live longer and have more offspring. —Ultimate

• Cats purr to show they are feeling friendly. —Proximate

Question 2: • Dogs sleep on their owners’ beds because it’s warm. —Proximate

• Dogs are social and want to be close to their pack (family) —Proximate

• Survival in dogs is keyed to living in close cooperation with other dogs. —Ultimate

Question 3: • The sight/smell of the cubs of his recently defeated enemy makes him angry. —Proximate

• There is an advantage to the male lion putting as many offspring into the population as possible. —Ultimate

• The killing of cubs brings the females into breeding mode.— Proximate–Ultimate?

Question 4: • Gorillas, because of their size, can scare away enemies without having to fight. —Proximate

• Female gorillas are attracted to strong male gorillas. —Proximate

• Gorillas that don’t waste energy fighting live longer and produce more offspring. —Ultimate

The "Hows and Whys" of Animal Behavior

Name _____________________________ Date __________ Period_____

Directions: In this activity you and the members of your group are to read the descriptions of the animal behavior below. Write down exactly what you think the behavior is on your paper or dry erase board. Discuss with the other members of your group what are some possible causes for the behavior. Write them down. Are the cause(s) you develop proximate or ultimate? Try to have at least one proximate and one ultimate cause for each behavior. Design an experiment to test your hypothesis. Don't worry if your experiment takes equipment you do not have, but try to make sure it follows good rules of science. Be prepared to share your results with the class.

Question 1: You come home and just settle down in your favorite chair with some tunes and maybe a glass of prune juice when suddenly this huge lump descends on your lap. A loud noise is coming from the throat of the beast and it seems to want to be petted. For those of you who don't have one this is a favorite activity in cats. What is a proximate and an ultimate cause for this condition? Design an experiment or series of observations to test your hypothesis.

Question 2: Even though it makes your mom crazy your dog, Spunky, always wants to sleep on your bed. What is a proximate and an ultimate cause for this condition? Design an experiment or series of observations to test your hypothesis.

Question 3: When a new lion takes over a pride he often will kill the young cubs of his predecessor. Describe a proximate and an ultimate cause for this condition. Design an experiment or series of observations to test your hypothesis.

Question 4: In silverback gorillas the males will hoot and pound their chests when other animals enter their territory. Describe a proximate and an ultimate cause for this condition? Design an experiment or series of observations to test your hypothesis.

Question 5: Explain a behavior you’ve noticed in an animal. Discuss some proximate and ultimate causes for the behavior. Design an experiment that will test your hypothesis.

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